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Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī

Razi was the preeminent pharmacist and physician of his time.
Born	August 26, 865[citation needed] Rey, Persia
Died	October 15 925 Rey
Era	Medieval era
Region	Persia
Religion	Muslim
School	Persian science
Main interests	Chemistry, Medicine, Biology, Physics, Philosophy
Notable ideas	The first to produce acids such as sulfuric acid, writing up limited or extensive notes on diseases such as smallpox and chickenpox, a pioneer in ophthalmology, author of first book on pediatrics, making leading contributions in inorganic and organic chemistry, also the author of several philosophical works.

Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzī (Arabic: أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن زكريا الرازي‎ Abu Bakr Mohammad Bin Yahia Bin Zakaria Al-Razi)(Persian: محمد زکریای رازی‎ Mohammad-e Zakariā-ye Rāzi), known as Rhazes or Rasis after medieval Latinists (August 26, 865 – 925), was a Persian Muslim^[1][2] polymath, a prominent figure in Islamic Golden Age,^[3] physician, alchemist and chemist, philosopher, and scholar.^[4]

Numerous “firsts” in medical research, clinical care, and chemistry are attributed to him, including being the first to differentiate smallpox from measles, and the discovery of numerous compounds and chemicals including alcohol, kerosene, among others.^[5] Edward Granville Browne considers him as “probably the greatest and most original of all the physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author”.^[6]

Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to the fields of medicine, alchemy, music, and philosophy, recorded in over 200 books and articles in various fields of science. He was well-versed in Ancient Persian, Greek and Ancient Indian medical knowledge and made numerous advances in medicine through own observations and discoveries.^[7]

Educated in music, mathematics, philosophy, and metaphysics, he chose medicine as his professional field. As a physician, he was an early proponent of experimental medicine and has been described as the father of pediatrics.^[8] He was also a pioneer of ophthalmology. He was among the first to use Humoralism to distinguish one contagious disease from another. In particular, Razi was the first physician to distinguish smallpox and measles through his clinical characterization of the two diseases. He became chief physician of Rey and Baghdad hospitals.

He traveled extensively, mostly in Persia. As a teacher in medicine, he attracted students of all disciplines and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Biography

This section cites its sources but does not provide page references. You can help to improve it by introducing citations that are more precise. (September 2010)

Colophon of Razi’s Book of Medicine.

Razi was born in the silk road passing city of Rey.^[9] His name Razi in Persian means “from the city of Rey”, an ancient town called Ragha in old Persian and Ragâ in Avestan.^[10] It is located on the southern slopes of the Alborz Range situated near Tehran, Iran. In this city (like Ibn Sina) he accomplished most of his work^[11]

He studied medicine under Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, known as Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari or Ali ibn Sahl, (Cf. al-Qifti, Usaibi’ah), a physician and philosopher born in Merv about 192 AH (808 C.E.) (d. approx. 240 AH (855 C.E.)). Ali ibn Sahl belonged to the medical school of Tabaristan or Hyrcania.

Razi became famous in his native city as a physician. He became Director of the hospital of Rey (Cf. ibn Juljul, al-Qifti, ibn abi Usaibi’ah), during the reign of Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad ibn Asad who was Governor of Rey from 290-296 AH (902-908 C.E.) on behalf of his cousin Ahmad ibn Isma’il ibn Ahmad, second Samanian ruler. Razi dedicated his al-Tibb al-‘Mansuri to Mansur ibn Ishaq ibn Ahmad, which was verified in a handwritten manuscript of his book. This was refuted by ibn al-Nadim’, but al-Qifti and ibn abi Usaibi’ah confirmed that the named Mansur was indeed Mansur ibn Isma’il who died in 365 AH (975 C.E.). Razi moved from Rey to Baghdad during Caliph Muktafi’s reign (approx. 289-295 AH (901-907 C.E.)) where he again held a position as Chief Director of a hospital.

After al-Muktafi’s death in 295 AH (907 C.E.) Razi allegedly returned to Rey where he gathered many students around him. As Ibn al-Nadim relates in Fihrist, Razi was then a Shaikh (title given to one entitled to teach), surrounded by several circles of students. When someone arrived with a scientific question, this question was passed on to students of the ‘first circle’. if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the ‘second circle’… and so on and on, until at last, when all others had failed to supply an answer, it came to Razi himself. We know of at least one of these students who became a physician. Razi was a very generous man, with a humane behavior towards his patients, and acting charitable to the poor. He used to give them full treatment without charging any fee, nor demanding any other payment.^{[citation needed]}

His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness.^{[citation needed]} The cause of his blindness is uncertain. One account attributes the cause to have been a blow to the head by his patron, al-Mansour. Abulfaraj (Historia Compendosia Dynastiarum, p.291) and Casiri claim that the cause was eating beans.^[12] Another attributes the cause of his blindness to a beating ordered by a mullah who was offended by his work, al-Hawi. The beating was administered with the manuscript of the work.^[13]

During that time he was approached by a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers does the eye contain and when he was unable to answer he refused his services and the ointment stating “my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy”.^[14] One of his pupils from Tabaristan came to look after him, but, according to al-Biruni, he refused to be treated, proclaiming it was useless as his hour of death was approaching. Some days later he died in Rey, on the 5th of Sha’ban 313 AH (27 October 925).

However, his fame spread and lived on. In an undated catalogue of the library at Peterborough Abbey, most likely from the 14th century, he is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine.^[15]

[edit] Razi’s masters and opponents

Razi studied medicine under Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari, however, Ibn al-Nadim indicates that he studied philosophy under al-Bakhi, who had travelled much and possessed great knowledge of philosophy and ancient sciences.

Razi’s hamud opponents, on the contrary, are well-known. They are the following:

• Abu al-Rabban al-Balki, chief of the Mu’tazilah of Baghdad (d. 319 AH/931 CE), a contemporary of Razi who wrote many refutations about Razi’s books, especially in his Ilm al-Ilahi. His disagreements with Razi entailed his thoughts on the concept of ‘Time’.
• Shuhaid ibn al-Husain al-Balkhi, with whom Razi had many controversies; one of these was on the concept of ‘Pleasure’, expounded in his Tafdll Ladhdhat al-Nafs which abu Sulaiman al-Mantiqi al-Sijistani quotes in his work Siwan al-Hikmah. Al-Balkhi died prior to 329 AH/940 CE.
• Abu Hatim al-Razi (Ahmad ibn Hamdan). an Isma’ili missionary, was one of his most influential opponents (d. 322 AH/933-934 CE). He published his controversies with Razi in his book A’lam al-Nubuwwah. Because of this book, Razi’s thoughts on Prophets and Religion are preserved to the present time.
• Ibn al-Tammar (seemingly being abu Bakr Husain al-Tammar, according to Kraus) was a physician who had some disputes with Razi, as documented by Abu Hatim al-Razi in A’lam al-Nubuwwah. Ibn al-Tammar disagreed with Razi’s book al-Tibb al-Ruhani but Razi rebutted him in two antitheses:

First refutation of al-Tammar’s disagreement with Misma’i concerning ‘Matter’.

Second refutation of al-Tammar’s opinion of ‘the Atmosphere of subterranean habitations’.

• Following are authors as described by Razi in his writings:
  • Al-Misma’i, a Mutakallim, who opposed ‘materialists’, counteracted Razi’s treatise.
  • Jarir, a physician who had a theory about ‘The eating of black mulberries after consuming water-melon’.
  • Al-Hasan ibn Mubarik al-Ummi, to whom Razi wrote two epistles with commentaries.
  • Al-Kayyal, a Mutakallim: al-Razi wrote a book on about his Theory of the Imam.
  • Mansur ibn Talhah, being the author of the book “Being“, which was criticized by al-Razi.
  • Muhammad ibn al-Laith al-Rasa’ili whose opposition against alchemists was disputed by al-Razi.
• Ahmad ibn al-Tayyib al-Sarakhasi (d. 286 AH/899 CE), was an older contemporary of al-Razi. Al-Razi disagreed with him on the question of ‘bitter taste’. He moreover opposed his teacher Ya’qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, regarding his writings, in which he discredited alchemists.

More names could be added to this list of all people opposed by al-Razi, specifically the Mu’tazilah and different Mutakallimin.

[edit] Contributions to medicine

[edit] Smallpox vs. measles

“Smallpox appears when blood ‘boils’ and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as ‘bubbles found in wine’ – (as blisters) – … this disease can also occur at other times – (meaning: not only during childhood) -. The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic.”

This diagnosis is acknowledged by the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1911), which states: “The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Persian physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment.”

Razi’s book: al-Judari wa al-Hasbah (On Smallpox and Measles) was the first book describing smallpox and measles as distinct diseases.^{[citation needed]} It was translated more than a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation show Razi’s medical methods. For example:

“The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with ‘measles’ than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums.”^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Pharmacy

Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of ‘mercurial ointments’ and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century .

[edit] Ethics of medicine

On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and “cures”. At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor’s orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.

He also wrote the following on medical ethics:

“The doctor’s aim is to do good, even to our enemies, so much more to our friends, and my profession forbids us to do harm to our kindred, as it is instituted for the benefit and welfare of the human race, and God imposed on physicians the oath not to compose mortiferous remedies.”^[16]

[edit] Books and articles on medicine

The Virtuous Life (al-Hawi الحاوي).

This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes — known in Europe also as The Large Comprehensive or Continens Liber (جامع الكبير) — contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages.

The al-Hawi is not a formal medical encyclopedia, but a posthumous compilation of Razi’s working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.

The al-Hawi also criticized the views of Galen, after Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen’s descriptions of fevers. For example, he stated that Galen’s descriptions of urinary ailments were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in hospitals of Baghdad and Rey.^[17]

A medical adviser for the general public (Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib) (من لا يحضره الطبيب)

Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home medical manual (remedial) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book, of course, is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results.

Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: ” 2 parts of duhn (oily extract) of rose, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead”. He recommended as a laxative, ” 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice (opium), Cuscuta epithymum (clover dodder) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh, saffron, and frankincense, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops.

Doubts About Galen (Shukuk ‘ala alinusor)

In his book Doubts about Galen, Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen’s descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen‘s.

He criticized moreover Galen’s theory that the body possessed four separate “humors” (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. (Cf. I. E. Goodman)

This line of criticism essentially had the potentiality to destroy completely Galen’s Theory of Humours including Aristotle’s theory of the Four Elements, on which it was grounded. Razi’s own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as “oiliness” and “sulphurousness”, or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements.

Razi’s challenge to the current fundamentals of medical theory were quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his contributions and labors, saying:

“I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen’s aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published.”

Crystallization of ancient knowledge, and the refusal to accept the fact that new data and ideas indicate that present day knowledge ultimately might surpass that of previous generations.

Razi believed that contemporary scientists and scholars are by far better equipped, more knowledgeable, and more competent than the ancient ones, due to the accumulated knowledge at their disposal. Razi’s attempt to overthrow blind acceptance of the unchallenged authority of ancient sages encouraged and stimulated research and advances in the arts, technology, and sciences.

The Diseases of Children

Razi is considered the father of pediatrics for writing The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine.^[8]

Mental health

As many other theorists in his time of exploration of illnesses he believed that mental illnesses were caused by demons. Demons were believed to enter the body and possess the body. This shows that mental illnesses were understood to be out of the control of the sufferer.

[edit] Books on medicine

This is a partial list of Razi’s books and articles in medicine, according to Ibn Abi Usaybi’ah. Some books may have been copied or printed under different names.

• al-Hawi (الحاوي), al-Hawi al-Kabir (الحاوي الكبير). Also known as The Virtuous Life, Continens Liber. The large medical Encyclopedia containing mostly recipes and Razi’s notebooks.
• Isbateh Elmeh Pezeshki (Persian اثبات علم پزشكى), (“Proving the Science of Medicine”).
• Dar Amadi bar Elmeh Pezeshki (Persian درآمدى بر علم پزشكى) (“Outcome of the Science of Medicine”).
• Rade Manaategha ‘tibb jahez
• Rade Naghzotibbeh Nashi
• The Experimentation of Medical Science and its Application
• Guidance
• Kenash
• The Classification of Diseases
• Royal Medicine
• For One Without a Doctor (من لايحضره الطبيب)
• The Book of Simple Medicine
• The Great Book of Krabadin
• The Little Book of Krabadin
• The Book of Taj or The Book of the Crown
• The Book of Disasters
• Food and its Harmfulness
• al-Judari wa al-Hasbah, Translation: A treatise on the Small-pox and Measles^[18]
• Ketab dar Padid Amadaneh Sangrizeh (‍Persian كتاب در پديدآمدن سنگريزه) (“The Book of Formation of small stones (Stones in the Kidney and Bladder)”)
• Ketabeh Dardeh Roodeha (Persian كتاب درد روده‌ها) (“The Book of Pains in the Intestine”)
• Ketab dar Dard Paay va Dardeh Peyvandhayyeh Andam (Persian كتاب در درد پاى و درد پيوندهاى اندام) (“The Book of Pains in Feet/Legs and Pains in Linked Limbs”)
• Ketab dar Falej
• The Book of Tooth Aches
• Dar Hey’ateh Kabed ‍(Persian در هيأت كبد) (“About the Liver”)
• Dar Hey’ateh Ghalb (About Heart Ache) ‍(Persian در هيأت قلب) (“About the Heart”)
• About the Nature of Doctors
• About the Earwhole
• Dar Rag Zadan (Persian در رگ زدن) (“About Handling Vessels”)
• Seydeh neh/sidneh
• Ketabeh Ibdal
• Food For Patients
• Soodhayeh Serkangabin (Persian سودهاى سركنگبين) or Benefits of Honey and Vinegar Mixture
• Darmanhayeh Abneh
• The Book of Surgical Instruments
• The Book on Oil
• Fruits Before and After Lunch
• Book on Medical Discussion (with Jarir Tabib)
• Book on Medical Discussion II (with Abu Feiz)
• About the Menstrual Cycle
• Ghi Kardan or vomiting (Persian قى كردن)
• Snow and Medicine
• Snow and Thirst
• The Foot
• Fatal Diseases
• About Poisoning
• Hunger
• Soil in Medicine
• The Thirst of Fish
• Sleep Sweating
• Warmth in Clothing
• Spring and Disease
• Misconceptions of a Doctors Capabilities
• The Social Role of Doctors

[edit] Translations

Razi’s notable books and articles on medicine (in English) include:

• Mofid al Khavas, The Book for the Elite.
• The Book of Experiences
• The Cause of the Death of Most Animals because of Poisonous Winds
• The Physicians’ Experiments
• The Person Who Has No Access to Physicians
• The Big Pharmacology
• The Small Pharmacology
• Gout
• Al Shakook ala Jalinoos, The Doubt on Galen
• Kidney and Bladder Stones
• Ketab tibb ar-Ruhani,The Spiritual Physik of Rhazes.

[edit] Alchemy

Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (Rhazes) isolated many chemical substances, produced many medications, and described many laboratory apparatus.

[edit] The Transmutation of Metals

Razi’s interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim‘s book (The Philosophers Stone-Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi‘s denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801-873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma’mum founder of Baghdad, to ‘the House of Wisdom‘ in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy. Finally we will mention Razi’s two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: al-Asrar (الاسرار “The Secrets”), and Sirr al-Asrar (سر الاسرار “The Secret of Secrets”), which incorporates much of the previous work.

Apparently Razi’s contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in Mohammad Zakaria Razi that a certain General Simjur confronted Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. “It appeared to those present that Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied”:

“I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible…”

According to one legend he could have been blinded by steaming vapors during an accident in one of his experiments. He managed to escape with no injuries.^{[19][verification needed]}

[edit] Chemical instruments and substances

Razi developed several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. He is known to have perfected methods of distillation and extraction. ar-Razi dismissed the idea of potions and dispensed with magic, meaning the reliance on symbols as causes. Although Razi does not reject the idea that miracles exist, in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature, his alchemical stockroom was enriched with products of Persian mining and manufacturing, even with sal ammoniac a Chinese discovery. He relied predominantly on the concept of ‘dominant’ forms or essences, which is the Neoplatonic conception of causality rather than an intellectual approach or a mechanical one).^{[citation needed]} Razi’s alchemy brings forward such empiric qualities as salinity and inflammability -the latter associated to ‘oiliness’ and ‘sulphurousness’. These properties are not readily explained by the traditional composition of the elements such as: fire, water, earth and air, as al-óhazali and others after him were quick to note, influenced by critical thoughts such as Razi had.

[edit] Major works on alchemy

Razi’s achievements are of exceptional importance in the history of chemistry, since in his books we find for the first time a systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity. Razi’s scheme of classification of the substances used in chemistry shows sound research on his part.

• The Secret (Al-Asrar)

This book was written in response to a request from Razi’s close friend, colleague, and former student, Abu Mohammed b. Yunis of Bukhara, a Muslim mathematician, philosopher, a highly reputable natural scientist. In his book Sirr al-Asrar, Razi divides the subject of “Matter’ into three categories as he did in his previous book al-Asrar.

1. Knowledge and identification of drug components of plant-, animal- and mineral-origin and the description of the best type of each for utilization in treatment.
2. Knowledge of equipment and tools of interest to and used by either alchemist or apothecary.
3. Knowledge of seven alchemical procedures and techniques: sublimation and condensation of mercury, precipitation of sulfur and arsenic calcination of minerals (gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron), salts, glass, talc, shells, and waxing.

This last category contains additionally a description of other methods and applications used in transmutation: * The added mixture and use of solvent vehicles. * The amount of heat (fire) used, ‘bodies and stones’, (‘al-ajsad’ and ‘al-ahjar) that can or cannot be transmuted into corporal substances such of metals and Id salts (‘al-amlah’). * The use of a liquid mordant which quickly and permanently colors lesser metals for more lucrative sale and profit.

Similar to the commentary on the 8th century text on amalgams ascribed to Al- Hayan (Jabir), Razi gives methods and procedures of coloring a silver object to imitate gold (gold leafing) and the reverse technique of removing its color back to silver. Gilding and silvering of other metals (alum, calcium salts, iron, copper, and tutty) are also described, as well as how colors will last for years without tarnishing or changing. Behind these procedures one does not find a deceptive motive rather a technical and economic deliberation. This becomes evident from the author’s quotation of market prices and the expressed triumph of artisan, craftsman or alchemist declaring the results of their efforts “to make it look exactly like gold!”. However, another motive was involved, namely, to manufacture something resembling gold to be sold quickly so to help a good friend who happened to be in need of money fast. Could it be Razi’s alchemical technique of silvering and gilding metals which convinced many Muslim biographers that he was first a jeweler before he turned to the study of alchemy?

Of interest in the text is Razi’s classification of minerals into six divisions, showing his discussion a modern chemical connotation:

1. Four spirits (AL-ARWAH) : mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphate (orpiment and realgar).
2. Seven bodies (AL-AJSAD) : silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (plumbago), zinc (Kharsind), and tin.
3. Thirteen stones : (AL-AHJAR) Pyrites marcasite (marqashita), magnesia, malachite, tutty Zinc oxide (tutiya), talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia, haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal Damascene^{[disambiguation needed]} is considered the best),
4. Seven vitriols (AL-ZAJAT) : alum (al-shabb الشب), and white (qalqadis القلقديس), black, red (suri السوري), and yellow (qulqutar القلقطار) vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green (qalqand القلقند).
5. Seven borates : natron, and impure sodium borate.
6. Eleven salts (AL-AMLAH): including brine, common (table) salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, and urine, rock, and sea salts. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances and their top choice, best colors and various adulterations.

Razi gives also a list of apparatus used in alchemy. This consists of 2 classes:

1. Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the Blacksmith’s hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pestle), file, shears, descensory and semi-cylindrical iron mould.
2. Utensils used to carry out the process of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel, crucible, alundel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.

• Secret of Secrets (Sirr Al-asrar)

This is Razi’s most famous book which has gained a lot of recognition in the West. Here he gives systematic attention to basic chemical operations important to the history of pharmacy.

[edit] Books on alchemy

Here is a list of Razi’s known books on alchemy, mostly in Persian:

• Modkhele Taalimi
• Elaleh Ma’aaden
• Isbaate Sanaa’at
• Ketabeh Sang
• Ketabe Tadbir
• Ketabe Aksir
• Ketabe Sharafe Sanaa’at
• Ketabe Tartib, Ketabe Rahat, The Simple Book
• Ketabe Tadabir
• Ketabe Shavahed
• Ketabe Azmayeshe Zar va Sim (Experimentation on Gold)
• Ketabe Serre Hakimaan
• Ketabe Serr (The Book of Secrets)
• Ketabe Serre Serr (The Secret of Secrets)
• The First Book on Experiments
• The Second Book on Experiments
• Resaale’ei Be Faan
• Arezooyeh Arezookhah
• A letter to Vazir Ghasem ben Abidellah
• Ketabe Tabvib

[edit] Philosophy

[edit] On existence

Razi is known to have been a free-thinking philosopher, since he was well-trained in ancient Greek science and philosophy although his approach to chemistry was rather naturalistic. Moreover, he was well versed in the theory of music, as so many other scientists of that time.

[edit] Metaphysics

His ideas on metaphysics were also based on the works of the ancient Greeks:

“The metaphysical doctrine of Razi, insofar as it can be reconstructed, derives from his concept of the five eternal principles^{[disambiguation needed]}. God, for him, does not ‘create’ the world from nothing but rather arranges a universe out of pre-existing principles. His account of the soul features a mythic origin of the world in which God out of pity fashions a physical playground for the soul in response to its own desires; the soul, once fallen into the new realm God has made for it, requires God’s further gift of intellect in order to find its way once more to salvation and freedom. In this scheme, intellect does not appear as a separate principle but is rather a later grace of God to the soul; the soul becomes intelligent, possessed of reason and therefore able to discern the relative value of the other four principles. Whereas the five principles are eternal, intellect as such is apparently not. Such a doctrine of intellect is sharply at odds with that of all of Razi’s philosophical contemporaries, who are in general either adherents of some form of Neoplatonism or of Aristotelianism. The remaining three principles, space, matter and time, serve as the non-animate components of the natural world. Space is defined by the relationship between the individual particles of matter, or atoms, and the void that surrounds them. The greater the density of material atoms, the heavier and more solid the resulting object; conversely, the larger the portion of void, the lighter and less solid. Time and matter have both an absolute, unqualified form and a limited form. Thus there is an absolute matter – pure extent – that does not depend in any way on place, just as there is a time, in this sense, that is not defined or limited by motion. The absolute time of al-Razi is, like matter, infinite; it thus transcends the time which Aristotle confined to the measurement of motion. Razi, in the cases of both time and matter, knew well how he differed from Aristotle and also fully accepted and intended the consequences inherent in his anti-Peripatetic positions.” (Paul E. Walker)^{[page needed]}

[edit] Excerpt from The Philosophical Approach

“(…) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and hekmat (wisdom). (…) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (…) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I’ve never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interfering with my behaviour.”

“In the “Philosophical Biography“, as seen above, he defended his personal and philosophical life style. In this work he laid out a framework based on the idea that there is life after death full of happiness, not suffering. Rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, utilise his intellect and apply justice in his life. According to Al-Razi: “This is what our merciful Creator wants. The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear.” In brief, man should be kind, gentle and just. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health. He did not implicate that the soul could avoid distress due to his fear of death. He simply states that this psychological state cannot be avoided completely unless the individual is convinced that, after death, the soul will lead a better life. This requires a thorough study of esoteric doctrines and/or religions. He focuses on the opinion of some people who think that the soul perishes when the body dies. Death is inevitable, therefore one should not pre-occupy the mind with it, because any person who continuously thinks about death will become distressed and think as if he is dying when he continuously ponders on that subject. Therefore, he should forget about it in order to avoid upsetting himself. When contemplating his destiny after death, a benevolent and good man who acts according to the ordinances of the Islamic Shari`ah, has after all nothing to fear because it indicates that he will have comfort and permanent bliss in the Hereafter. The one who doubts the Shari`ah, may contemplate it, and if he diligently does this, he will not deviate from the right path. If he falls short, Allah will excuse him and forgive his sins because it is not demanded of him to do something which he cannot achieve.” (Dr. Muhammad Abdul-Hadi Abu Reidah)

[edit] Books on philosophy

This is a partial list of Razi’s books on philosophy. Some books may have been copied or published under different titles.

• The Small Book on Theism
• Response to Abu’al’Qasem Braw
• The Greater Book on Theism
• Modern Philosophy
• Dar Roshan Sakhtane Eshtebaah
• Dar Enteghaade Mo’tazlian
• Delsoozi Bar Motekaleman
• Meydaneh Kherad
• Khasel
• Resaaleyeh Rahnamayeh Fehrest
• Ghasideyeh Ilaahi
• Dar Alet Afarineshe Darandegan
• Shakkook
• Naghseh Ketabe Tadbir
• Naghsnamehyeh Ferforius
• Do name be Hasanebne Moharebe Ghomi

Notable books in English:

• Spiritual Medicine
• The Philosophical Approach (Al Syrat al Falsafiah)
• The Metaphysics

[edit] On Religion

A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to Razi. According to al-Biruni‘s Bibliography of Razi (Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī), Razi wrote two “heretical books”: “Fī al-Nubuwwāt (On Prophecies) and “Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn (On the Tricks of False Prophets). According to Biruni, the first “was claimed to be against religions” and the second “was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets.”^[20] In his Risala, Biruni further criticized and expressed caution about Razi’s religious views, noting an influence of Manichaeism. However, Biruni also listed some other works of Razi on religion, including Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat (Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies) and Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman (That Man has a Wise and Perfect Creator), among others, listed under his works on the “divine sciences”.^[20] None of these works are now extant.

Other views and quotes that are often ascribed to Razi are found in a book written by Abu Hatim al-Razi, called Aʿlām al-nubuwwa, and not in any extant work of Razi. Abu Hatim was an Isma’ili missionary who debated Razi, but whether he has faithfully recorded the views of Razi is disputed. According to Abdul Latif al-‘Abd, Islamic philosophy professor at Cairo University, Abu Hatim and his student, Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī (d. 411AH), were Isma’ili extremists who often misrepresented the views of Razi in their works.^[21] This view is also corroborated by early historians like al-Shahrastani who noted “that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī”.^[22] Al-‘Abd also points out that the views allegedly expressed by Razi contradict what is found in Razi’s own works, like the Spiritual Medicine (Fī al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī). Al-‘Abd considers the content of the Spiritual Medicine to be a refutation to the claims made by Abu Hatim about Razi’s religious views.^[21]

According to Abu Hatim, Razi offered harsh criticism concerning religions, in particular those religions that claim to have been revealed by prophetic experiences.^[23][24][25] Razi asserted that “[God] should not set some individuals over others, and there should be between them neither rivalry nor disagreement which would bring them to perdition.”^[26] He argued,

On what ground do you deem it necessary that God should single out certain individuals [by giving them prophecy], that he should set them up above other people, that he should appoint them to be the people’s guides, and make people dependent upon them?^[26]

Concerning the link between violence and religion, Razi expressed that God must have known, considering the many disagreements between different religions, that “there would be a universal disaster and they would perish in the mutual hostilities and fighting. Indeed, many people have perished in this way, as we can see.”^[26]

He was also critical of the lack of interest among religious adherents in the rational analysis of their beliefs, and the violent reaction which takes its place:

If the people of this religion are asked about the proof for the soundness of their religion, they flare up, get angry and spill the blood of whoever confronts them with this question. They forbid rational speculation, and strive to kill their adversaries. This is why truth became thoroughly silenced and concealed.^[26]

Al-Razi believed that common people had originally been duped into belief by religious authority figures and by the status quo. He believed that these authority figures were able to continually deceive the common people “as a result of [religious people] being long accustomed to their religious denomination, as days passed and it became a habit. Because they were deluded by the beards of the goats, who sit in ranks in their councils, straining their throats in recounting lies, senseless myths and “so-and-so told us in the name of so-and-so…”^[26]

He believed that the existence of a large variety of religions was, in itself, evidence that they were all man made, saying, “Jesus claimed that he is the son of God, while Moses claimed that He had no son, and Muhammad claimed that he [Jesus] was created like the rest of humanity.”^[26] and “Mani and Zoroaster contradicted Moses, Jesus and Muhammad regarding the Eternal One, the coming into being of the world, and the reasons for the [existence] of good and evil.”^[26] In relation to the Hebrew’s God asking of sacrifices, he said that “This sounds like the words of the needy rather than of the Laudable Self-sufficient One.”^[26]

On the Qur’an, Razi said:

You claim that the evidentiary miracle is present and available, namely, the Koran. You say: “Whoever denies it, let him produce a similar one.” Indeed, we shall produce a thousand similar, from the works of rhetoricians, eloquent speakers and valiant poets, which are more appropriately phrased and state the issues more succinctly. They convey the meaning better and their rhymed prose is in better meter. … By God what you say astonishes us! You are talking about a work which recounts ancient myths, and which at the same time is full of contradictions and does not contain any useful information or explanation. Then you say: “Produce something like it”‽^[26]

The above is a translation of a quote from Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi’s now lost treatise, Mahariq al anbiya مخارق الانبياء (The Prophets’ Fraudulent Tricks), in Abu Hatim al-Razi’s refutation, A’lam al-Nubuwwah (Signs of Prophecy).^[27] Another, longer, translation of the same passage is also available.^[28]

From the beginning of the human history, all of those who claimed to be prophets were, in his worst assumption, tortuous and devious and with his best assumption had psychological problems.^[23][24][25]

[edit] Criticism

Al-Razi’s religious and philosophical views were later criticized by Persian Islamic philosophers such as Abu Rayhan Biruni and Avicenna in the early 11th century. Biruni in particular wrote a short Risala treatise dealing with al-Razi, criticizing him for his sympathy with Manichaeism,^[29] his Hermetical writings, his religious and philosophical views,^[30] for refusing to mathematize physics, and his active opposition to mathematics.^[31] Avicenna, who was himself a physician and philosopher, also criticized al-Razi.^[32] During a debate with Biruni, Avicenna stated:

Or from Muhammad ibn Zakariyyab al-Razi, who meddles in metaphysics and exceeds his competence. He should have remained confined to surgery and to urine and stool testing—indeed he exposed himself and showed his ignorance in these matters.^[33]

[edit] Quotes about Razi

“Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages.”– George Sarton^{[page needed]}

“Rhazes remained up to the 17th century the indisputable authority of medicine.”– The Encyclopaedia of Islam^{[page needed]}

“His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject.” – The Bulletin of the World Health Organization (May 1970)

“In today’s world we tend to see scientific advance as the product of great movements, massive grant-funded projects, and larger-than-life socio-economic forces. It is easy to forget, therefore, that many contributions stemmed from the individual efforts of scholars like Rhazes. Indeed, pharmacy can trace much of its historical foundations to the singular achievements of this ninth-century Persian scholar.” — Michael E. Flannery^{[page needed]}

[edit] Legacy

The modern-day Razi Institute in Tehran, and Razi University in Kermanshah were named after him, and ‘Razi Day’ (‘Pharmacy Day’) is commemorated in Iran every August 27.^[34][35]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi

[edit] See also

• List of Iranian scientists
• Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran
• Medical literature

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Browne, Edward Granville (2001). Islamic Medicine. Goodword Books Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-87570-19-9. 
• Richter-Bernburg, Lutz. “AL-ḤĀWI”. Encyclopaedia Iranica 1. ISBN 0-933273-54-1. 

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Primary literature

[edit] By al-Razi

• Arberry, A.J. (1950). “The Spiritual Physick of Rhazes”. The Wisdom of the East Series. The Liberty Fund. 
• See C. Brockelmann for the manuscript of Razi’s extant books in general, see Brockelmann, GAL, I, pp. 268–71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418–21.
• Paul Kraus, Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis: Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae superssunt. Pars Prior. Cairo 1939. Note: this is the only edition of Al-Razi’s philosophical books and fragments still extant. Only the first volume was published since Kraus’s suicide prevented the publication of the second volume for which he already had gathered a great amount of material. This material was transferred, after his death, to the Institut Francais d’Archeologie Orientale, in Cairo; it still remains to be published.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] By others

• Ibn Al-Nadim, Fihrist, (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq.
• Sa’id al-Andalusi, Tabaqat al-Umam, p. 33
• Ibn Juljul, Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama, (ed. Fu’ad Sayyid), Cairo, 1355/1936, pp. 77–78
• J. Ruska, Al-Biruni als Quelle fur das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi’s, Isis, Vol. V, 1924, pp. 26–50.
• Al-Biruni, Epitre de Beruni, contenant le repertoire des ouvres de Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi, publiee par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936
• Al-Baihaqi, Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma, (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932
• Al-Qifti,Tarikh al-Hukama, (ed. Lippert), pp. 27–177
• Ibn Abi Usaibi’ah,Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba, Vol. I, pp. 309–21
• Abu Al-Faraj ibn al-‘Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus),Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal, (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291
• Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A’yan, (ed. Muhyi al-Din ‘Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678, pp. 244–47
• Al-Safadi, Nakt al-Himyan, pp. 249–50
• Ibn Al-‘Imad, Shadharat al-Dhahab, Vol. II, p. 263
• Al-‘Umari, Masalik al-Absar, Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah).

[edit] Secondary literature

• G. S. A. Ranking, The Life and Works of Rhazes, in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, London, 1913, pp. 237–68.
• Al-Razi als Bahnbrecher einer neuer Chemie, Deutsche Literaturzeitung, 1923, pp. 118–24.
• Die Alchemie al-Razi’s der Islam, Vol. XXII,pp. 283–319.
• Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Razi-Forschung, Archivio di stori della scienza, 1924, Vol. V, pp. 335–47
• H. H. Shader, ZDMG, 79, pp. 228–35 (see translation into Arabic by Abdurrahman Badawi in al-Insan al-Kamil,Islamica, Vol. XI, Cairo, 1950, pp. 37–44).
• E. O. von Lippmann, Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, Vol. II, p. 181.
• S. Pines, Die Atomenlehre ar-Razi’s in Beitrage zur islamischen Atomenlehre, Berlin, 1936, pp. 34–93.
• Dr. Mahmud al-Najmabadi, Shah Hal Muhammad ibn Zakariya, (1318/1900)
• Gamil Bek, Uqud al-Jauliar, Vol. I, pp. 118–27.
• Izmirli Haqqi, Ilahiyat, Fak. Macm., Vol. I, p. 151; Vol. II, p. 36, Vol. III, pp. 177 et seq.
• Abdurrahman Badawi, Min Tarlkh al-Ilhad fi al-Islam Islamica, Vol. II, Cairo, 1945, pp. 198–228.
• Hirschberg,Geschichte der Augenheilkunde, p. 101.
• E. G.Browne, Arabian Medicine, Cambridge, 1921, pp. 44–53.
• M. Meyerhof, Legacy of Islam, pp. 323 et seq.
• F. Wüstenfeld, Geschichte der Arabischen Arzte und Naturforscher, ftn. 98.
• L. Leelerc, Histoire de la medicine arabe, Paris, 1876, Vol. I, pp. 337–54.
• H. P. J. Renaud, A propos du millenaire de Razes, in bulletin de la Societe Irancaise d’Histoire de la medicine, Mars-avril, 1931, pp. 203 et seq.
• A. Eisen, Kimiya al-Razi, RAAD, DIB, 62/4.
• Aldo Mieli, La science arabe, Leiden, 1938, pp. 8, 16.
• Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, see. Razes: The Secret of Secrets, p. 273, also pp. 197–200, and Anawati: L’Alchemie arabe in Rased.
• Browne, Edward Granville (2001). Islamic Medicine. Goodword Books Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-87570-19-9. 
• M. M. Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy
• Walker, P. “The Political Implications of al-Razi’s Philosophy”, in C. Butterworth (ed.) The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 61-94.(1992)
• Motazed, K. Mohammad Zakaria Razi

[edit] Encyclopedia

• Richter-Bernburg, Lutz. “AL-ḤĀWI”. Encyclopaedia Iranica 1. ISBN 0-933273-54-1. 
• Encyclopaedie des Islams, s. v. (by Ruska).

[edit] External links

• Levity.com
• Payvand.com
• Google Books Search, “Doubt: A History” p. 229
• “Lives of the Physicians”, dating from 1882, features a biography, in Arabic, about Rhazes.

Jābir ibn Hayyān
15th-century European portrait of “Geber”, Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence
Title	Abu Musa Jābir ibn Hayyān
Born	722 AD Tus, Persia
Died	c. 804 AD
Ethnicity	Arab[1][2] or Persian[3]
Era	Islamic Golden Age
Creed	Shia[4][5]
Main interest(s)	Alchemy and Chemistry, Astronomy, Astrology, Medicine and Pharmacy, Philosophy, Physics, philanthropist
Notable work(s)	Kitab al-Kimya, Kitab al-Sab’een, Book of the Kingdom, Book of the Balances , Book of Eastern Mercury, etc.
Influenced by[show] Ja’far al-Sadiq, Alchemy, Harbi al-Himyari
Influenced[show] Al-Kindi, Alchemy, Chemistry

Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān (al-Barigi / al-Azdi / al-Kufi / al-Tusi / al-Sufi), often known simply as Geber, (Arabic: جابر بن حیان‎) (Persian: جابرحیان) (c.721–c.815)^[6] was a prominent polymath: a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geographer, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. Born and educated in Tus, he later traveled to Kufa. Jābir is held to have been the first practical alchemist.^[7]

As early as the 10th century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jābir was in dispute in Islamic circles.^[8] His name was Latinized as “Geber” in the Christian West and in 13th century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as Pseudo-Geber, produced alchemical and metallurgical writings under the pen-name Geber.

[edit] Biography

[edit] Early references

In 988 Ibn al-Nadim compiled the Kitab al-Fihrist which mentions Jabir as a spiritual follower and as a companion to Jafar as-Sadiq (he is not listed among the students of Jafar as-Sadiq but many of the writings of the Jabirian corpus are dedicated to Jafar as-Sadiq). In another reference al-Nadim reports that a group of philosophers claimed Jabir was one of their own members. Another group, reported by al-Nadim, says only The Large Book of Mercy is genuine and that the rest are pseudographical. Their assertions are rejected by al-Nadim.^[9] Joining al-Nadim in asserting a real Jabir; Ibn-Wahshiyya (“ibrahim alkindi …book on poison is a great work..”) Rejecting a real Jabir; (the philosopher c.970) Abu Sulayman al-Mantiqi claims the real author is one al-Hasan ibn al-Nakad al-Mawili. 14th century critic of Arabic literature, Jamal al-Din ibn Nubata al-Misri declares all the writings attributed to Jabir doubtful.^[10]

[edit] Life and background

Ibrahim was an Omani Natural Philosopher who lived mostly in the 8th century; he was born in Tus, Khorasan, in Iran (Persia),^[6] then ruled by the Umayyad Caliphate. Jabir in the classical sources has been entitled differently as al-Azdi al-Barigi or al-Kufi or al-Tusi or al-Sufi.^[11] There is a difference of opinion^[12] as to whether he was an Arab from Kufa who lived in Khurasan or a Persian from Khorasan who later went to Kufa or whether he was, as some have suggested, of Syrian origin and later lived in Persia and Iraq.^[13] His ethnic background is not clear,^[11] and sources reference him as an Arab or a Persian.^[3] In some sources, he is reported to have been the son of Hayyan al-Azdi, a pharmacist of the Arabian Azd tribe who emigrated from Yemen to Kufa (in present-day Iraq) during the Umayyad Caliphate.^[14][15] while Henry Corbin believes Geber seems to have been a client of the ‘Azd tribe.^[16] Jābir became an alchemist at the court of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, for whom he wrote the Kitab al-Zuhra (“The Book of Venus”, on “the noble art of alchemy”).^{[citation needed]} Hayyan had supported the Abbasid revolt against the Umayyads, and was sent by them to the province of Khorasan (present day Afghanistan and Iran) to gather support for their cause. He was eventually caught by the Umayyads and executed. His family fled to Yemen,^[14][17] where Jābir grew up and studied the Quran, mathematics and other subjects.^[14] Jābir’s father’s profession may have contributed greatly to his interest in alchemy.

After the Abbasids took power, Jābir went back to Kufa. He began his career practicing medicine, under the patronage of a Vizir (from the noble Persian family Barmakids) of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. His connections to the Barmakid cost him dearly in the end. When that family fell from grace in 803, Jābir was placed under house arrest in Kufa, where he remained until his death.

It has been asserted that Jābir was a student of the sixth Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq and Harbi al-Himyari,^[5][8] however other scholars have questioned this theory.^[18]

[edit] The Jabirian corpus

An illustration of the various experiments and instruments used by Jabir Ibn Hayyan.

In total, nearly 3,000 treatises and articles are credited to Jabir ibn Hayyan.^[19] Following the pioneering work of Paul Kraus, who demonstrated that a corpus of some several hundred works ascribed to Jābir were probably a medley from different hands,^[10][20] mostly dating to the late 9th and early 10th centuries, many scholars believe that many of these works consist of commentaries and additions by his followers,^{[citation needed]} particularly of an Ismaili persuasion.^[21]

The scope of the corpus is vast: cosmology, music, medicine, magic, biology, chemical technology, geometry, grammar, metaphysics, logic, artificial generation of living beings, along with astrological predictions, and symbolic Imâmî myths.^[10]

• The 112 Books dedicated to the Barmakids, viziers of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. This group includes the Arabic version of the Emerald Tablet, an ancient work that proved a recurring foundation of and source for alchemical operations. In the Middle Ages it was translated into Latin (Tabula Smaragdina) and widely diffused among European alchemists.
• The Seventy Books, most of which were translated into Latin during the Middle Ages. This group includes the Kitab al-Zuhra (“Book of Venus”) and the Kitab Al-Ahjar (“Book of Stones”).
• The Ten Books on Rectification, containing descriptions of alchemists such as Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
• The Books on Balance; this group includes his most famous ‘Theory of the balance in Nature’.

Jābir states in his Book of Stones (4:12) that “The purpose is to baffle and lead into error everyone except those whom God loves and provides for”. His works seem to have been deliberately written in highly esoteric code (see steganography), so that only those who had been initiated into his alchemical school could understand them. It is therefore difficult at best for the modern reader to discern which aspects of Jābir’s work are to be read as symbols (and what those symbols mean), and what is to be taken literally. Because his works rarely made overt sense, the term gibberish is believed to have originally referred to his writings (Hauck, p. 19).

[edit] People

Jābir’s interest in alchemy was probably inspired by his teacher Ja’far as-Sadiq. When he used to talk about alchemy, he would say “my master Ja’far as-Sadiq taught me about calcium, evaporation, distillation and crystallization and everything I learned in alchemy was from my master Ja’far as-Sadiq.” Imam Jafar was famed for his depth and breadth of knowledge. In addition to his knowledge of Islamic sciences, Imam Jafar was well educated in natural sciences, mathematics, philosophy, astronomy, anatomy, chemistry (alchemy), and other subjects. The foremost Islamic alchemist Jabir bin Hayyan was his most prominent student. Other famous students of his were Imam Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik Ibn Anas, the founders of two Sunni schools of jurisprudence, and Wasil ibn Ata, the founder of the Mutazilite school of Islamic thought. Imam Jafar was known for his liberal views on learning, and was keen to debate with scholars of different faiths and of different beliefs. Imam Abu Hanifa is quoted by many souces as having said “My knowledge extends to only two years. The two I spent with Imam Jafar Sadiq”, some Islamic scholars have gone so far as to call Imam Jafar Saddiq as the root of most of Islamic jurisprudence, having a massive influence on Hanafi, Maliki and Shia schools of thought extending well into mainstream Hanbali and Shafi’i thought. Imam Jafar also attained a surpassing knowledge in astronomy and in the science of medicine. it is said that he wrote more than five hundred books on health care which were compiled and annotated by another great scholar and scientist of Islam, Jabir bin Hayyan

Jābir professes to draw his inspiration from earlier writers, legendary and historic, on the subject.^[22] In his writings, Jābir pays tribute to Egyptian and Greek alchemists Zosimos, Democritus, Hermes Trismegistus, Agathodaimon, but also Plato, Aristotle, Galen, Pythagoras, and Socrates as well as the commentators Alexander of Aphrodisias Simplicius, Porphyry and others.^[10] A huge pseudo-epigraphic literature of alchemical books was composed in Arabic, among which the names of Persian authors also appear like Jāmāsb, Ostanes, Mani, testifying that alchemy-like operations on metals and other substances were also practiced in Persia. The great number of Persian technical names (zaybaq = mercury, nošāder = sal-ammoniac) also corroborates the idea of an important Iranian root of medieval alchemy.^[23] Ibn al-Nadim reports a dialogue between Aristotle and Ostanes, the Persian alchemist of Achaemenid era, which is in Jabirian corpus under the title of Kitab Musahhaha Aristutalis.^[24] Ruska had suggested that the Sasanian medical schools played an important role in the spread of interest in alchemy.^[23] He emphasizes the long history of alchemy, “whose origin is Arius … the first man who applied the first experiment on the [philosopher’s] stone… and he declares that man possesses the ability to imitate the workings of Nature” (Nasr, Seyyed Hussein, Science and Civilization of Islam).

[edit] Theories

Jābir’s alchemical investigations ostensibly revolved around the ultimate goal of takwin — the artificial creation of life. The Book of Stones includes several recipes for creating creatures such as scorpions, snakes, and even humans in a laboratory environment, which are subject to the control of their creator. What Jābir meant by these recipes is unknown.

Jābir’s alchemical investigations were theoretically grounded in an elaborate numerology related to Pythagorean and Neoplatonic systems. The nature and properties of elements was defined through numeric values assigned the Arabic consonants present in their name, ultimately culminating in the number 17.

By Jabirs’ time Aristotelian physics, had become Neoplatonic. Each Aristotelian element was composed of these qualities: fire was both hot and dry, earth, cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air, hot and moist. This came from the elementary qualities which are theoretical in nature plus substance. In metals two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jābir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. Like Zosimos, Jabir believed this would require a catalyst, an al-iksir, the elusive elixir that would make this transformation possible — which in European alchemy became known as the philosopher’s stone.^[10]

According to Jabir’s mercury-sulfur theory, metals differ from each in so far as they contain different proportions of the sulfur and mercury. These are not the elements that we know by those names, but certain principles to which those elements are the closest approximation in nature.^[25] Based on Aristotle’s “exhalation” theory the dry and moist exhalations become sulfur and mercury (sometimes called “sophic” or “philosophic” mercury and sulfur). The sulfur-mercury theory is first recorded in a 7th century work Secret of Creation credited (falsely) to Balinus (Apollonius of Tyana). This view becomes wide spread.^[26] In the Book of Explanation Jabir says

the metals are all, in essence, composed of mercury combined and coagulated with sulphur [that has risen to it in earthy, smoke-like vapors]. They differ from one another only because of the difference of their accidental qualities, and this difference is due to the difference of their sulphur, which again is caused by a variation in the soils and in their positions with respect to the heat of the sun

Holmyard says that Jabir proves by experiment that these are not ordinary sulfur and mercury.^[14]

The seeds of the modern classification of elements into metals and non-metals could be seen in his chemical nomenclature. He proposed three categories:^[27]

• “Spirits” which vaporise on heating, like arsenic (realgar, orpiment), camphor, mercury, sulfur, sal ammoniac, and ammonium chloride.
• “Metals“, like gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, iron, and khar-sini
• Non-malleable substances, that can be converted into powders, such as stones.

The origins of the idea of chemical equivalents might be traced back to Jabir, in whose time it was recognized that “a certain quantity of acid is necessary in order to neutralize a given amount of base.”^{[28][verification needed]} Jābir also made important contributions to medicine, astronomy/astrology, and other sciences. Only a few of his books have been edited and published, and fewer still are available in translation.

[edit] Laboratory equipment and material

Ambix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimus, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection of ancient greek alchemists (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888).

Jabirian corpus is renowned for its contributions to alchemy. It shows a clear recognition of the importance of experimentation, “The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments, for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery.”^[29] He is credited with the use of over twenty types of now-basic chemical laboratory equipment,^[30] such as the alembic^[31] and retort, and with the description of many now-commonplace chemical processes – such as crystallisation, various forms of alchemical “distillation”, and substances citric acid (the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits), acetic acid (from vinegar) and tartaric acid (from wine-making residues), arsenic, antimony and bismuth, sulfur, and mercury^[29][30] that have become the foundation of today’s chemistry.^[32]

The works in Latin under the name of Geber include these important chemical processes (Von Meyer, 1906): The manufacture of nitric and sulfuric acids; The separation of gold from other metals through the agency of lead and saltpeter (potassium nitrate). The concept of a chemical compound; the mineral cinnabar, for example, as being composed of sulfur and mercury The purification of mercury. The classification of salts as water soluble, under the generic title “sal.” The introduction of the word “alkali” to designate substances such as lye and other bases. The production of nitric acid by distilling a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), copper vitriol (copper sulfate), and alum (naturally occurring sulfate of iron, potassium, sodium or aluminum). The production of sulfuric acid through the heating of alum . The production of aqua regia, a solvent capable of dissolving gold, by mixing salmiac (ammonium chloride) and nitric acid. The production of alum from alum shale by recrystallizing it from water. The purification of substances through crystallization The precipitation of silver nitrate crystals from a solution by the addition of common salt, thus establishing a test for the presence of both silver and salt. The preparation of mercuric oxide from mercury by heating it with a metallic oxide, and mercuric chloride by heating mercury with common salt, alum and saltpeter. The preparation of arsenious acid. The dissolving of sulfur in solutions of alkalies, and its transformation when it interacts with aqua regia. The theory that the different metals are composed of varying degrees of sulfur and mercury. The production of saltpeter by mixing potash (potassium carbonate) and nitric acid. ^[33]

According to Ismail al-Faruqi and Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, “In response to Jafar al-Sadik‘s wishes, [Jabir ibn Hayyan] invented a kind of paper that resisted fire, and an ink that could be read at night^{[disambiguation needed]}. He invented an additive which, when applied to an iron surface, inhibited rust and when applied to a textile, would make it water repellent.”^[34]

[edit] Alcohol and the mineral acids

According to Forbes “no proof was ever found that the Arabs knew alcohol or any mineral acid in a period before they were discovered in Italy, whatever the opinion of some modern authors may be on this point.”^[35] However this claim is due to Forbes (and others) lack of knowledge of Arabic texts, and a number of instances of distillation of wine have been found by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan.^[36] Fractional distillation of alcohol first occurs about 1100 probably in Salerno. Magister Salernus (died 1167) provides one of the earliest direct recipes.^[35] Directions to make sulfuric acid, nitric acid and aqua regis appear in Liber Fornacum, De inventione perfectionis, and the Summa.^[35]

[edit] Legacy

An artistic depiction of “Geber”

Whether there was a real Jabir in the 8th century or not, his name would become the most famous in alchemy.^[18] He paved the way for most of the later alchemists, including al-Kindi, al-Razi, al-Tughrai and al-Iraqi^{[disambiguation needed]}, who lived in the 9th–13th centuries. His books strongly influenced the medieval European alchemists^[32] and justified their search for the philosopher’s stone.^[37][38] In the Middle Ages, Jabir’s treatises on alchemy were translated into Latin and became standard texts for European alchemists. These include the Kitab al-Kimya (titled Book of the Composition of Alchemy in Europe), translated by Robert of Chester (1144); and the Kitab al-Sab’een (Book of Seventy) by Gerard of Cremona (before 1187). Marcelin Berthelot translated some of his books under the fanciful titles Book of the Kingdom, Book of the Balances, and Book of Eastern Mercury. Several technical Arabic terms introduced by Jabir, such as alkali, have found their way into various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary.

Max Meyerhoff states the following on Jabir ibn Hayyan: “His influence may be traced throughout the whole historic course of European alchemy and chemistry.”^[32]

The historian of chemistry Erick John Holmyard gives credit to Jābir for developing alchemy into an experimental science and he writes that Jābir’s importance to the history of chemistry is equal to that of Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavoisier. The historian Paul Kraus, who had studied most of Jābir’s extant works in Arabic and Latin, summarized the importance of Jābir to the history of chemistry by comparing his experimental and systematic works in chemistry with that of the allegorical and unintelligible works of the ancient Greek alchemists.^[39] The word gibberish is theorized to be derived from the Latinised version off Jābir’s name,^[40] in reference to the incomprehensible technical jargon often used by alchemists, the most famous of whom was Jābir.^[41] Other sources such as the Oxford English Dictionary suggest the term stems from gibber; however, the first known recorded use of the term “gibberish” was before the first known recorded use of the word “gibber” (see Gibberish).

[edit] Quotation

• “My wealth let sons and brethren part. Some things they cannot share: my work well done, my noble heart — these are mine own to wear.”^[42]

[edit] The Geber problem

The identity of the author of works attributed to Jabir has long been discussed.^[8] According to a famous controversy,^[43] pseudo-Geber has been considered as the unknown author of several books in Alchemy.^[44] This was first independently suggested, on textual and other grounds, by the 19th-century historians Hermann Kopp and Marcellin Berthelot.^[45] Jabir, by reputation the greatest chemist of Islam, has long been familiar to western readers under the name of Geber, which is the medieval rendering of the Arabic Jabir, the Geber of the Middle Ages.^[46] The works in Latin corpus were considered to be translations until the studies of Kopp, Hoefer, Berthelot, and Lippman. Although they reflect earlier Arabic alchemy they are not direct translations of “Jabir” but are the work of a 13th century Latin alchemist.^[47] Eric Holmyard says in his book Makers of Chemistry Clarendon press.(1931).^[48]

There are, however, certain other Latin works, entitled The Sum of Perfection, The Investigation of Perfection, The Invention of Verity, The Book of Furnaces, and The Testament, which pass under his name but of which no Arabic original is known. A problem which historians of chemistry have not yet succeeded in solving is whether these works are genuine or not.

However by 1957 AD when he (Holmyard) wrote Alchemy. Courier Dover Publications. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-486-26298-7. Holmyard had abandoned the idea of an Arabic original. (although they are based on “Islamic” alchemical theories)

The question at once arises whether the Latin works are genuine translations from the Arabic, or written by a Latin author and, according to common practice, ascribed to Jabir in order to heighten their authority. That they are based on Muslim alchemical theory and practice is not questioned, but the same may be said of most Latin treatises on alchemy of that period; and from various turns of phrase it seems likely that their author could read Arabic. But the general style of the works is too clear and systematic to find a close parallel in any of the known writings of the Jabirian corpus, and we look in vain in them for any references to the characteristically Jabirian ideas of “balance” and the alphabetic numerology. Indeed for their age they have a remarkably matter of fact air about them, theory being stated with a minimum of prolixity and much precise practical detail being given. The general impression they convey is that they are the product of an occidental rather than an oriental mind, and a likely guess would be that they were written by a European scholar, possibly in Moorish Spain. Whatever their origin, they became the principal authorities in early Western alchemy and held that position for two or three centuries.

The question of Geber’s identity, whether he is the original Jābir or a “pseudo-Geber” adopting his name, is still in dispute(1962).^[49] It is said that Geber, the Latinized form of “Jābir,” was adopted presumably because of the great reputation of a supposed 8th-century alchemist by the name of Jābir ibn Hayyān.^[50] About this historical figure, however, there was considerable uncertainty a century ago,^[51] and the uncertainty continues today.^[52] This is sometimes called the “Geber-Jābir problem”.^[53] It is possible that some of the facts mentioned in the Latin works, ascribed to Geber and dating from the 12th century and later, must also be placed to Jabir’s credit. It is important to consider that it is impossible to reach definite conclusions until all the Arabic writings ascribed to Jābir have been properly edited and discussed.^[46]

[edit] The Pseudo-Geber corpus

The Latin corpus consists of books with an author named “Geber” for which researchers have failed to find a text in Arabic. Although these books are heavily influenced by Arabic books written by Jābir, the “real” Geber, and by Al Razi and others, they were never written in Arabic. They are in Latin only, they date from about the year 1310, and their author is called Pseudo-Geber:

• Summa perfectionis magisterii (“The Height of the Perfection of Mastery”).^[54]
• Liber fornacum (“Book of Stills”),
• De investigatione perfectionis (“On the Investigation of Perfection”), and
• De inventione veritatis (“On the Discovery of Truth”).
• Testamentum gerberi

The 2nd, 3rd and 4th books listed above “are merely extracts from or summaries of the Summa Perfectionis Magisterii with later additions.”^[55]

[edit] English translations of Jābir and the pseudo-Geber

• Syed Nomanul Haq, Names, Natures and Things: The Alchemists Jabir ibn Hayyan and his Kitab al-Ahjar (Book of Stones), [Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science p. 158] (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994), ISBN 0-7923-3254-7.
• Donald Routledge Hill, ‘The Literature of Arabic Alchemy’ in Religion: Learning and Science in the Abbasid Period, ed. by M.J.L. Young, J.D. Latham and R.B. Serjeant (Cambridge University Press, 1990) pp. 328–341, esp. pp 333–5.
• E. J. Holmyard (ed.) The Arabic Works of Jabir ibn Hayyan, translated by Richard Russel in 1678. New York, E. P. Dutton (1928); Also Paris, P. Geuther.
• Geber and William R. Newman, The Summa Perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A Critical Edition, Translation and Study ISBN 90-04-09466-4.
• William R. Newman, New Light on the Identity of Geber, Sudhoffs Archiv, 1985, Vol.69, pp. 76–90.

[edit] Popular culture

• Geber is mentioned in Paulo Coelho‘s 1993 bestseller, The Alchemist.^[56]

• Jabbir is said to be the creator of a (fictional) mystical chess set in Katherine Neville‘s novels The Eight and The Fire.

• In S.H.I.E.L.D, Jabir appears as the 8th century leader of the organization.

• Jabir is mentioned in the American sitcom The Big Bang Theory, in the episode “The Guitarist Amplification“.

• Jabir Ibn Hayyan is mentioned in the graphic novel Habibi by Craig Thompson, p. 253-254.

• In the DC comic book title Demon Knights, the 11th century engineer Al-Jabr appears to be based on Jabir Ibn Hayyan.

[edit] See also

• Alchemy
• Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam
• Chemistry
• Al-Kindi
• List of Arab scientists and scholars
• List of Iranian scientists and scholars
• List of Shi’a Muslims
• Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi
• Science in medieval Islam

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Plessner, M. (2008) [1970–80]. “Jābir Ibn Hayyān”. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Encyclopedia.com. 
• Britannica
• Encarta Encyclopedia (Archived 2009-10-31)
• Columbia Encyclopedia
• Article at Islam Online
• Article at Famous Muslims
• Article at Islam Online
• Article at Al Shindagah (includes an extract of Jabir’s The Discovery of secrets)
• Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Jàbir ibn Hayyan in .jpg and .tiff format.